Scroll of the Law

SCROLL OF THE LAW By : Joseph Jacobs Judah David Eisenstein Executive Committee of the Editorial Board. Ludwig Blau

ARTICLE HEADINGS:

• Every One to Possess a Sefer Torah.
• Method of Preparation.
• Size of the Scroll and Margin.
• Verses.
• Name of God.
• Sewing the Sheets Together.
• Appurtenances.
• The Breastplate.
• History.
• Personal Copies of the Torah.

Every One to Possess a Sefer Torah.

The Pentateuch, written on a scroll of parchment. The Rabbis count among the mandatory precepts incumbent upon every Israelite the obligation to write a copy of the Pentateuch for his personal use. The passage "Now therefore write ye this song for you, and teach it the children of Israel" (Deut. xxxi. 19) is interpreted as referring to the whole Pentateuch, wherein "this song" is included (Sanh. 21b). The king was required to possess a second copy, to be kept near his throne and carried into battle (Deut. xvii. 18; Maimonides, "Yad," Sefer Torah, vii. 1, 2). One who is unable to write the scroll himself should hire a scribe to write it for him; or if he purchases a scroll he should have it examined by a competent Sofer. If a Jew inherits a scroll it is his duty to write or have written another. This scroll he must not sell, even in dire distress, except for the purpose of paying his teacher's fee or of de. fraying his own marriage expenses (Meg. 27a).

Method of Preparation.

• (see image) Metal Case for Scroll of the Law.(In the Musée de, Cluny, Paris.)
• (see image) Ceremonies Accompanying the Presentation of a Scroll of the Law to a Synagogue.(From Bodenschatz, "Kirchliche Verfassung;" 1748.)
  

The Pentateuch for reading in public (see Law, Reading from the) must be written on the skin (parchment) of a clean animal, beast or fowl (comp. Lev. xi. 2 et seq.), though not necessarily slaughtered according to the Jewish ritual; but the skin of a fish, even if clean, can not be used (Shab. 108a). The parchment must be prepared specially for use as a scroll, with gallnut and lime and other chemicals that help to render it durable (Meg. 19a). In olden times the rough hide was scraped on both sides, and thus a sort of parchment made which was known as "gewil." Later the hide was split, the outer part, of superior quality, called "Kelaf," being mostly used for making scrolls of the Law, while the inner and inferior part, called "doksostos," (= δύσχιστος), was not employed for this purpose. The writing was inscribed on the outer or hair side of the gewil, and on the inner or flesh side of the Kelaf (Shab. 79b). Every page was squared, and the lines were ruled with a stylus. Only the best black ink might be used (see Ink), colored ink or gilding not being permitted (Massek, Soferim i. 1). The writing was executed by means of a stick or quill; and the text was in square Hebrew characters (ib.).

Size of the Scroll and Margin.

The width of the scroll was about six handbreadths (= 24 inches), the length equaling the circumference (B. B. 14a). The Baraita says half of the length shall equal the width of the scroll when rolled up (Soferim ii. 9). The length of the scroll in the Ark was six hand breadths, equal to the height of the tablets (B. B. l.c.). Maimonides gives the size of the regular scroll as 17 fingers (= inches) long (see below), seventeen being considered a "good" number ( = 17). Every line should be long enough to contain thirty letters or three words equal in space to that occupied by the letters . The lines are to be neither too short, as in an epistle, nor too long, involving the shifting of the body when reading from beginning to end. The sheet ("yeri'ah") must contain no less than three and no more than eight columns. A sheet of nine pages may be cut in two parts, of four and five columns respectively. The last column of the scroll may be narrower and must end in the middle of the bottom line with the words (Men. 30a).

• (see image) Scroll of the Law from China.(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.)

The margin at the bottom of each page must be 4 fingerbreadths; at the top, 3 fingerbreadths; between the columns, 2 fingers' space; an allowance being made of 1 fingerbreadth for sewing the sheets together. Maimonides gives the length of the page as 17 fingers, allowing 4 fingerbreadths for the bottom and 3 fingerbreadths for the top margin, and 10 fingerbreadths for the length of the written column. In the scroll that Maimonides had written for himself each page measured 4 fingers in width and contained 51 lines. The total number of columns was266, and the length of the whole scroll was 1,366 fingers (= 37.34 yds.). Maimonides calculates a finger-measure as equal to the width of 7 grains or the length of 2 ("Yad," l.c. ix. 5, 9, 10), which is about 1 inch. The number of lines on a page might not be less than 48 nor more than 60 (ib. vii. 10). The Baraita, however, gives the numbers 42, 60, 72, and 98, based respectively on the 42 travels (Num. xxxiii. 3-48), 60 score thousand Israelites (Num. xi. 21), 72 elders (ib. verse 25), and 98 admonitions in Deuteronomy (xxviii. 16-68), because in each of these passages is mentioned "writing" (Soferim ii. 6). (At the present day the forty-two-lined column is the generally accepted style of the scroll, its length being about 24 inches.) The space between the lines should be equal to the size of the letters (B. B. 13a), which must be uniform, except in the case of certain special abnormalities (see Small and Large Letters). The space between one of the Pentateuchal books and the next should be four lines. Extra space must be left at the beginning and at the end of the scroll, where the rollers are fastened. Nothing may be written on the margin outside the ruled lines, except one or two letters required to finish a word containing more than twice as many letters.

Some scribes are careful to begin each column with initial letters forming together the words ("by his name JAH"; Ps. lxviii. 4), as follows: (Gen. i. 1), (ib. xlix. 8), (Ex. xiv. 28), (ib. xxxiv. 11), (Num. xxiv. 5), (Deut. xxxi. 28). Other scribes begin all columns except the first with the letter "waw"; such columns are called "wawe ha-'ammudim" = "the waw columns" (see Scribes).

It is the scribe's duty to prepare himself by silent meditation for performing the holy work of writing the Pentateuch in the name of God. He is obliged to have before him a correct copy; he may not write even a single word from memory; and he must pronounce every word before writing it. Every letter must have space around it and must be so formed that an ordinary schoolboy can distinguish it from similar letters (Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah hayyim, 32, 36; see Taggin). The scroll may contain no vowels or accents; otherwise it is unfit for public reading.

Verses.

• (see image) Scroll of the Law, with Crown, Breastplate, and Pointer.(In the British Museum.)

The scroll is not divided into verses; but it has two kinds of divisions into chapters ("parashiyyot"), distinguished respectively as "petuhah" (open) and "setumah" (closed), the former being a larger division than the latter (Men. 32a). Maimonides describes the spaces to be left between successive chapters as follows: "The text preceding the Petuhah ends in the middle of the line, leaving a space of nine letters at the end of the line, and the petuhah commences at the beginning of the second line. If a space of nine letters can not be left in the preceding line, the petuhah commences at the beginning of the third line, the intervening line being left blank. The text preceding the setumah or closed parashah ends in the middle of the line, a space of nine letters being left, and the setumah commencing at the end of the same line. If there is no such space on the same line, leave a small space at the beginning of the second line, making together a space equal to nine letters, and then commence the setumah. In other words, always commence the petuhah at the beginning of a line and the setumah in the middle of a line" ("Yad," l.c. viii. 1, 2). Maimonides gives a list of all the petuhah and setumah parashiyyot as copied by him from an old manuscript in Egypt written by Ben Asher (ib. viii., end). Asheri explains the petuhah and setumah differently, almost reversing the method. The general practise is a compromise: the petuhah is preceded by a line between the end of which and the left margin a space of nine letters is left, and commences at the beginning of the followingline; the setumah is preceded by a line closing at the edge of the column and commences at the middle of the next line, an intervening space of nine letters being left (Shulhan 'Aruk).

The poetic verses of the song of the Red Sea ("shirat ha-Yam"; Gen. xv. 1-18) are metrically arranged in thirty lines (Shab. 103b) like bricks in a wall, as illustrated below:

• (see image) The first six lines are placed thus:
  

The verses of the song of "Ha'azinu" (Deut. xxxii. 1-43) are placed in seventy double rows, the first four lines as follows:

The scroll must be written in accordance with the Masoretic Ketib, the abnormalities of certain letters being reproduced (See Small and Large Letters). If the final letters are written in the middle of a word, or if their equivalents are written at the end, the scroll is unfit for public reading (Soferim ii. 10).

Name of God.

Scrupulous care must be taken in writing the Names of God: before every name the scribe must say, "I intend to write the Holy Name"; otherwise the scroll would be unfit ("pasul") for public reading. When the scribe has begun to write the name of God he must not be interrupted until he has finished it. No part of the name may, extend into the margin outside the rule. If an error occurs in the name, it may not be erased like any other word, but the whole sheet must be replaced and the defective sheet put in the genizah. When the writing is set aside to dry it should be covered, with a cloth to protect it from dust. It is considered shameful to turn the writing downward ('Er. 97a).

If an error is found in the scroll it must be corrected and reexamined by a competent person within thirty days; if three or four errors are found on one page the scroll must be placed in the genizah (Men. 29b).

The sheets are sewed together with threads made of dried tendons ("gidin") of clean beasts. The sewing is begun on the blank side of the sheets; the extreme ends at top and bottom are left open to allow stretching. The rollers are fastened to the ends of the scroll, a space of two fingerbreadths being left between them and the writing. Every sheet must be sewed to the next; even one loose sheet makes the scroll unfit. At least three stitches must remain intact to hold two sheets together (Meg. 19a; Git. 60a).

Sewing the Sheets Together.

If the scroll is torn to a depth of two lines, it may be sewed together with dried tendons or fine silk, or a patch may be pasted on the back; if the tear extends to three lines, the sheet must be replaced. If the margin or space between the lines is torn, it may be sewed together or otherwise repaired. Care must be taken that every letter is in its proper place and that the needle does not pierce the letters.

A scroll written by a non-Jew must be put aside in the genizah; one written by a heretic ("apikoros") or sectarian Jew ("min") must be burned, as it is to be apprehended that he has wilfully changed the text (Git. 45b).

• (see image) Breastplate for Scroll of the Law.(Designed by Leo Horvitz.)

Every one who passes a scroll must kiss its mantle. The scroll may not be kept in a bedroom (M. K. 25a). A scroll of the Law may lie on the top of another, but not under the scroll of the Prophets, which latter is considered inferior in holiness to the scroll of the Pentateuch (Meg. 27a).

Decayed and worn-out scrolls are placed in the Genizah or in an earthen vessel in the coffin of a talmid-hakam (Ber. 26b). See also Manuscripts.

Appurtenances.

The reverence with which the scroll of the Law is regarded is shown by its costly accessories and ornaments, which include a beautiful Ark as a receptacle, with a handsomely embroidered "paroket" (curtain) over it. The scroll itself is girded with a strip of silk and robed in a Mantle of the Law, and is laid on a "mappah," or desk-cover, when placed on the almemar for reading. The two rollers, "eẓ hayyim," are of hard wood, with flat, round tops and bottoms to support and protect the edges of the parchment when rolled up. The projecting handles of the rollers on both sides, especially the upper ones, are usually of ivory. The gold and silver ornaments belonging to the scroll are known as "kele Kodesh" (sacred vessels), and somewhat resemble the ornaments of the high priest. The principal ornament is the Crown of the Law, which is made to fit over the upper ends of the rollers when the scroll is closed. Some scrolls have two crowns, one for each upper end.

The Breastplate.

• (see image) Scroll of the Law from Tafilet, Morocco.(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.)

Suspended by a chain from the top of the rollers is the breastplate, to which, as in the case of the crowns, little bells are attached. Lions, eagles, flags, and the Magen Dawid either chased or embossed, or painted, are the principal decorations. The borders and two pillars of Boaz and Jachin on the sides of the breastplate are in open-work. In the center there is often a miniature Ark, the doors being in the form of the two tablets of the Law, with the commandments inscribed thereon. The lower part of the breastplate has a place for the insertion of a small plate, bearingthe dates of the Sabbaths and holy days on which the scroll it distinguishes is used. Over the breastplate is suspended, by a chain from the head of the rollers, the Yad. In former times the crown was placed upon the head of the "hatan Torah" when he concluded the reading of the Pentateuch on the day of the Rejoicing of the Law, but it was not permitted to be so used in the case of an ordinary nuptial ceremony (Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah hayyim, 154, 10). The people used to donate, or loan, the silver ornaments used for the scroll on holy days (ib. 153, 18). When not in use these ornaments were hung up on the pillars inside the synagogue (David ibn Abi Zimra, Responsa, No. 174, ed. Leghorn, 1651). In modern times they are placed in a drawer or safe under the Ark when not in use.

For domestic use, or during travel, the scroll is kept in a separate case, which in the East is almost invariably of wood; when of small dimensions this is sometimes made of the precious metals and decorated with jewels.

Bibliography: Masseket Soferim:
Maimonides, Yad, Sefer Torah, vii.-x.:
Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 270-284;
Vitry Mahzor, pp 651-685, 687-704;

bibliography under Sofer;

William Rosenau, Jewish Ceremonial Institutions and Customs, p. 32, Baltimore, 1903; Catalogue Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition.J. J. D. E.

History.

• (see image) Binder for Scroll of the Law.(From Kirchner, "Judisches Ceremonial," 1726.)
• (see image) Metal-Work Cases for Scrolls of the Law, with Floral Designs and Hebrew Inscriptions, Dated 1732.(Formerly in a synagogue at Bokhara, now in the possession of M. N. Adler, London.)
• (see image) Wooden Case for Scroll of the Law from Tafilet, Morocco.(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.)
• (see image) Case Containing Samaritan Scroll of the Law.(From a photograph by the Palestine Exploration Fund.)
• (see image) Breastplate for Scroll of the Law.(In the synagogue at Schönhausen, Germany.)
  

The awe with which the Torah was regarded, even in its outward form, and the immutability of the East in general and of Jewish antiquity in particular, have preserved the scroll of the Law practically unchanged, and it may therefore be considered as the representative of the ancient Hebrew book. All the rules enumerated above find parallels in the Talmud and in the Midrash, and may be verified with the aid of the table of contents and index in Blau's "Das Althebräische Buchwesen" (see also Manuscripts). The material used for synagogue scrolls in ancient times was generally leather made of the skins of wild animals, parchment being used but seldom (Blau, l.c. pp. 23 et seq., especially p. 30). This material continued to be employed in the East; for in the second half of the sixteenth century Joseph Caro was the first to codify the word "gewil," thus giving the Polish Jew Moses Isserlein occasion to remark that "our parchment is better" (comp. also Löw, "Graphische Requisiten," i. 131). In Europe, on the contrary, parchment scrolls were approved; and it was even permitted to read from the Torah in book-form if there was no scroll at hand (Maimonides, l.c. x., end; "Migdal 'Oz" ad loc.; and Löw, l.c. ii. 138). In antiquity a scroll of small size with very fine script was generally used; and the largest copy, the official Torah scroll of Judaism, which was kept in the sanctuary at Jerusalem, and from which the high priest and the king read to the congregation on solemn occasions, did not exceed 45 cm. in height, as is shown both by direct statements and by the illustration on the arch of Titus (Blau, l.c. pp. 71-78). Under European influence, however, gigantic scrolls, specimens of which still exist, became the fashion in the Middle Ages, although side by side with them small, graceful rolls likewise were used both for synagogal and for private worship. The earliest extant manuscript of the Torah is said to have been written before 604; only fragments of it have been preserved (see Jew. Encyc. iii. 180b, s.v. Bible Manuscripts). Among noteworthy scrolls of the Law which have disappeared may be mentioned, in addition to the official copy noted above, the roll of leather with golden script sent by the high priest in the third century B.C. to the King of Egypt, at the latter's request, to be translated into Greek (Letter of Aristeas, §§ 176-179; Blau, l.c. pp. 13, 157-159), and the Torah scroll which Maimonides wrote with his own hand. The latter scroll, made of ram's, skin, was 1,366 fingers (about 25 meters) in length, contained 266 columns six fingers wide, with 51 lines in each, and conformed to the rule, enforced even in antiquity (B. B. 14a), that the girth of the scroll should correspond to its height (Maimonides, l.c. ix. 10).

Personal Copies of the Torah.

The history of the dissemination of the scrolls of the Law is one of vicissitudes. While they were few in number at the time of the Chronicler (II Chron. xvii. 7-9), their number increased enormously in the Talmudic period as a result of a literal interpretation of the command that each Jew should write a Torah for himself, and also in consequence of the custom of always carrying a copy (magic influence being attributed thereto) on the person. In the later Middle Ages, on the contrary, the scrolls decreased in number, especially in Christian Europe, on account of the persecutions and the impoverishment of the Jews, even though for 2,000 years the first duty incumbent on each community was the possession of at least one copy (Blau, l.c. p. 88). While the ancient Oriental communities possessed scrolls of the Prophets and of the Hagiographa in addition to the scroll of the Law, European synagogues have, since the Middle Ages, provided themselves only with Torah scrolls and, sometimes, with scrolls of Esther. Six or nine pigeonholes, in which the rolls are lying (not standing as in modern times), appear in certain illustrations of bookcases (comp. Blau, l.c. p. 180; also illustrations in "Mittheilungen," iii.-iv., fol. 4), these scrolls evidently representing two or three entire Bibles, each consisting of three parts, the Torah, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa. Curiously enough, the interior of the Ark in the synagogue of Modena is likewise divided into six parts (comp. illustration in "Mittheilungen," i. 14).

• See also Scribes.

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Torah

TORAH By : Joseph Jacobs Ludwig Blau

ARTICLE HEADINGS:
Name.
Quinary Division of the Torah.
Division into Sections.
Jewish Tradition and the Torah.
Preexistence of the Torah.
Study of the Torah.
Criticism of the Torah Among Jews.
Composition.
Style.
Laws of the Torah.
Penal Law.
Civil Law.

Name applied to the five books of Moses, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The contents of the Torah as a whole are discussed, from the point of view of modern Biblical criticism, under Pentateuch, where a table gives the various sources; while its importance as a center of crystallization for the Hebrew canon is treated under Bible Canon. The present article, therefore, is limited to the history of the Pentateuch in post-Biblical Judaism.

The Torah receives its title from its contents, the name itself connoting "doctrine." The Hellenistic Jews, however, translated it by νόμος = "law" (e.g., LXX., prologue to Ecclus. [Sirach], Philo, Josephus, and the New Testament), whence came the term "law-book"; this gave rise to the erroneous impression that the Jewish religion is purely nomistic, so that it is still frequently designated as the religion of law. In reality, however, the Torah contains teachings as well as laws, even the latter being given in ethical form and contained in historical narratives of an ethical character.

Name.

In the books of the Bible the following names of the Pentateuch occur: in II Chron. xvii. 9, Neh. ix. 3, and, with the added epithet , II Chron. xxxiv. 14; while alone, without , is found in II Kings x. 31, I Chron. xxii. 11, and II Chron. xii. 1, xxxi. 3, 4, and xxxv. 26. Sometimes , or a word of similar meaning, is added, as , Josh. xxiv. 26, Neh. viii. 18 (without , ib. x. 29). Another designation is , Josh. viii. 31, xxiii. 6; II Kings xiv. 6; Neh. viii. 1; or , I Kings ii. 3; II Kings xxiii. 25; Mal. iii. 22 (A. V. iv. 4), with the addition of ; Ezra iii. 2 (with the addition of ), vii. 6; , II Chron. xxv. 4 (preceded by ), xxxv. 12. The oldest name doubtless is (Deut. i. 5; xxxi. 9, 11, 24; xxxii. 46; Neh. viii. 2), sometimes shortened to (Deut. i. 5; xxxi. 9, 11, 24; xxxii. 46; Neh. viii. 2), or to (Neh. viii. 5), or to (Deut. xxxiii. 4). The last two names occur with great frequency in Jewish tradition, where the Torah becomes a living creature. The expression "the five books," which is the origin of the term "Pentateuch," occurs only in Jewish tradition, which has also been the source for "Genesis," etc., as the names of the books of the Pentateuch (see Blau, "Zur Einleitung in die Heilige Schrift," pp. 40-43).

Quinary Division of the Torah.

According to all critics, regardless of the schools to which they belong, the Torah forms a single work, which is represented, even at the present day, by the synagogal Scroll of the Law; nor does history know of any other Torah scroll. The fivefold division of the Pentateuch was due to purely external causes, and not to a diversity of content; for in volume the Torah forms more than a fourth of all the books of the Bible, and contains, in round numbers, 300,000 letters of the 1,100,000 in the entire Bible. A work of such compass far exceeded the normal size of an individual scroll among the Jews; and the Torah accordingly became a Pentateuch, thus being analogous to the Homeric poems, which originally formed a single epic, but which were later split into twenty-four parts each.

Division into Sections.

Like them, moreover, the Pentateuch was divided according to the sense and with an admirable knowledge of the subject (Blau, "Althebräisches Buchwesen," pp. 47-49), while subdivisions were also made into the so-called open and closed "parashiyyot," whose exact interrelation is not yet clear. There are in all 669 sections, 290 open and 379 closed. Another class of parashiyyot divides the weekly lessons, now called "sidrot," into seven parts. The Torah also falls, on the basis of the lessons for the Sabbath, into 54 sidrot according to the annual cycle, and into 155 according to the triennial cycle. The former division, which is now used almost universally, is the Babylonian; and the latter, which has recently been introduced into some Reform congregations, is the Palestinian. The latter class of sidrot, however, has no external marks of division in the scrolls of the synagogue; while the divisions in the former, like the parashiyyot, are indicated by blank spaces of varying length (see Sidra). This probably implies a greater antiquity for the sections which are thus designated, although the divisions into 5,845 verses, which seem to be still older, have no outward marks. The system of chapters was introduced into the editions of the Hebrew Bible, and hence into the Torah, from the Vulgate. This mode of division is not known to the Masorah, though it was incorporated in the final Masoretic notes, for individual books of the Pentateuch. It is given in modern editions of the Hebrew Bible simply on the basis of the stereotyped editions of the English Bible Society, which followed earlier examples.

Jewish Tradition and the Torah.

The external form of the Torah is discussed in such articles as Manuscripts, Scroll of the Law, and Mantle of the Law; but so numerous are the assertions of tradition concerning its contents and its value that the repetition of even a very small part of them would far exceed the limits of this article. Every page of the Talmud and Midrash is filled with citations from the Pentateuch and with the most fulsome praise of it, united with super-human love and divine respect therefor. In the five volumes of Bacher's work on the Haggadah, the Torah and its study form a special rubric in theaccount of each "sofer," or scholar of the Law. In all probability there never was another people, except possibly the Brahmans, that surrounded its holy writings with such respect, transmitted them through the centuries with such self-sacrifice, and preserved them with so little change for more than 2,000 years. The very letters of the Torah were believed to have come from God Himself (B. B. 15a), and were counted carefully, the word "soferim" denoting, according to the Talmud (kid. 30a), "the counters of the letters." A special class of scholars devoted all their lives to the careful preservation of the text ("Masorah"), the only analogy in the literature of the world being found in India, where the Vedas were accurately preserved by similar means.

Preexistence of the Torah.

The Torah is older than the world, for it existed either 947 generations (Zeb. 116a, and parallels) or 2,000 years (Gen. R. viii., and parallels; Weber, "Jüdische Theologie," p. 15) before the Creation. The original Pentateuch, therefore, like everything celestial, consisted of fire, being written in black letters of flame upon a white ground of fire (Yer. Shek. 49a, and parallels; Blau, "Althebräisches Buchwesen," p. 156). God held counsel with it at the creation of the world, since it was wisdom itself (Tan., Bereshit, passim), and it was God's first revelation, in which He Himself took part. It was given in completeness for all time and for all mankind, so that no further revelation can be expected. It was given in the languages of all peoples; for the voice of the divine revelation was seventyfold (Weber, l.c. pp. 16-20; Blau, "Zur Einleitung in die Heilige Schrift," pp. 84-100). It shines forever, and was transcribed by the scribes of the seventy peoples (Bacher, "Ag. Tan." ii. 203, 416), while everything found in the Prophets and the Hagiographa was already contained in the Torah (Ta'an. 9a), so that, if the Israelites had not sinned, only the five books of Moses would have been given them (Ned. 22b). As a matter of fact, the Prophets and the Hagiographa will be abrogated; but the Torah will remain forever (Yer. Meg. 70d). Every letter of it is a living creature. When Solomon took many wives, Deuteronomy threw himself before God and complained that Solomon wished to remove from the Pentateuch the yod of the word (Deut. xvii. 17), with which the prohibition of polygamy was spoken; and God replied: "Solomon and a thousand like him shall perish, but not one letter of the Torah shall be destroyed" (Lev. R. xix.; Yer. Sanh. 20c; Cant. R. 5, 11; comp. Bacher, l.c. ii. 123, note 5). The single letters were hypostatized, and were active even at the creation of the world (Bacher, l.c. i. 347), an idea which is probably derived from Gnostic speculation. The whole world is said to be only 1/3200 of the Torah ('Er. 21a).

Israel received this treasure only through suffering (Ber. 5a, and parallels), for the book and the sword came together from heaven, and Israel was obliged to choose between them (Sifre, Deut. 40, end; Bacher, l.c. ii. 402, note 5); and whosoever denies the heavenly origin of the Torah will lose the future life (Sanh. x. 1). This high esteem finds its expression in the rule that a copy of the Pentateuch is unlimited in value, and in the ordinance that the inhabitants of a city might oblige one another to procure scrolls of the Law (Tosef., B. M. iii. 24, xi. 23). The pious bequeathed a copy of the Torah to the synagogue (ib. B. k. ii. 3); and it was the duty of each one to make one for himself, while the honor paid the Bible greatly influenced the distribution of copies and led to the foundation of libraries (Blau, "Althebräisches Buchwesen," pp. 84-97).

Study of the Torah.

The highest ideal of young and old and of small and great was the study of the Law, thus forming a basis for that indomitable eagerness of the Jewish people for education and that unquenchable thirst for knowledge which still characterize them. "As the child must satisfy its hunger day by day, so must the grown man busy himself with the Torah each hour" (Yer. Ber. ch. ix.). The mishnah (Pe'ah i.) incorporated in the daily prayer declares that the study of the Law transcends all things, being greater than the rescue of human life, than the building of the Temple, and than the honor of father and mother (Meg. 16b). It is of more value than the offering of daily sacrifice ('Er. 63b); a single day devoted to the Torah outweighs 1,000 sacrifices (Shab. 30a; comp. Men. 100a); while the fable of the Fish and the Fox, in which the latter seeks to entice the former to dry land, declares Israel can live only in the Law as fish can live only in the ocean. Whoever separates himself from the Torah dies forthwith ('Ab. Zarah 3b); for fire consumes him, and he falls into hell (B. B. 79a); while God weeps over one who might have occupied himself with it but neglected to do so (Hag. 5b). The study must be unselfish: "One should study the Torah with self-denial, even at the sacrifice of one's life; and in the very hour before death one should devote himself to this duty" (Sotah 21b; Ber. 63b; Shab. 83b). "Whoever uses the crown of the Torah shall be destroyed" (Ned. 62a). All, even the lepers and the unclean, were required to study the Law (Ber. 22a), while it was the duty of every one to read the entire weekly lesson twice (Ber. 8a); and the oldest benediction was the one spoken over the Torah (ib. 11b). Prophylactic power also is ascribed to it: it gives protection against suffering (ib. 5a), against sickness ('Er. 54b), and against oppression in the Messianic time (Sanh. 98b); so that it may be said that "the Torah protects all the world" (Sanh. 99b; comp. Ber. 31a). The following sayings may be cited as particularly instructive in this respect: "A Gentile who studies the Torah is as great as the high priest" (B. k. 38a). "The practise of all the laws of the Pentateuch is worth less than the study of the scriptures of it" (Yer. Pe'ah i.), a conclusive refutation of the current view of the Nomism of the Jewish faith. After these citations it becomes readily intelligible that, according to the Talmudic view, "God Himself sits and studies the Torah" ('Ab. Zarah 3b).

Criticism of the Torah Among Jews.

The spirit of criticism naturally developed from this devotion to the Pentateuch, in spite of faith and reverence. The very existence of the doctrine that the Law was of heavenly origin, and that whosoeverdenied this dogma had no share in the life to come (Sanh. x.), shows that there was a school which assumed a critical attitude toward the Torah. There is much evidence in proof of this; but here only the history of criticism within the orthodox synagogue will be discussed. It was a moot point whether the Law was given all at once or in smaller rolls at different times (Git. 60a); and the further question was discussed, whether Moses or Joshua wrote the last eight verses of the Pentateuch (B. B. 14b-15a). It was definitely affirmed, on the other hand (ib.), that Moses composed the sections concerning Balaam (Num. xxii.-xxiv.), thus closing all discussions on that score. Many tacit doubts are scattered through the Talmud and Midrash, in addition to those which Einstein has collected. In the post-Talmudic period, in like manner, there was no lack of critics, some of them recognized as such again only in recent times, although Abraham ibn Ezra, who was joined by Spinoza, has long been recognized as belonging to this class.

Composition.

The composition of the Torah should be discussed on the basis of the old Semitic concepts, which planned a work of literature practically rather than systematically. Repetitions, therefore, should not be eliminated, since things which are good and noble may and should be brought to remembrance many times. From the point of view of effective emphasis, moreover, a change of context may develop a new and independent application of a given doctrine, especially if it be repeated in other words. Thus tradition (The Thirty-two Rules of Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili) took "the repeated doctrine" as its rule of interpretation, and left large numbers of repetitions (parallel passages) in its collections of oral teachings. The framework of the Pentateuch is historical narrative bound together by the thread of chronology. There is no rigid adherence to the latter principle, however; and the Talmud itself accordingly postulates the rule: "There is no earlier and no later in the Torah" (Pes. 6b et passim). From a Masoretic point of view, the Mosaic code contains the history of a period of about 2,300 years. As has already been noted in regard to the names of the individual books, the Talmud and the Masorah divided the Torah into smaller units according to its contents, so that Genesis includes the story of Creation and of the Patriarchs, Exodus the account of the departure from Egypt, the revelation, and so on.

Style.

The style of the Pentateuch, in keeping with its content, differs widely from the diction of the Prophets and the Psalms. It is less lofty, although it is not lacking in dramatic force, and it is concrete rather than abstract. Most of the laws are formulated in the second person as a direct address, the Decalogue being the best example. In certain cases, however, the nature of the subject requires the third person; but the Torah reverts as quickly as possible to the second as being the more effective form of address (comp., for example, Deut. xix. 11-21). In the Pentateuch, temporal depiction is the usual method. The process of creation, rather than the universe as a whole, is described; and the account brings the world visibly into being in six main parts. In the creation of man, of plants, and of paradise God is seen at work, and the same process of coming into being may be traced in the ark of Noah and similar descriptions. A remarkable example of word-painting is the account of the consecration of Aaron and his sons to the high-priesthood (Lev. viii.). Here the reader watches while Moses washes the candidates, dresses them, etc. ("Magyar-Zsidó Szemle," ix. 565 et seq.). Naïve simplicity is a characteristic trait of Pentateuchal style, which understands also the art of silence. Thus, as in all great products of world-literature, feminine beauty is not described in detail; for Sarah, Rachel, and other heroines are merely said to be beautiful, while the completion of the picture is left to the imagination of the reader.

Laws of the Torah.

The contents of the Torah fall into two main parts: historical and legal. The latter commences with Ex. xii.; so that the Tannaim maintained that the Law actually began there, proceeding on the correct principle that the word "Torah" could be applied only to teachings which regulated the life of man, either leading him to perform certain acts (commands = ) or restraining him from them (prohibitions = ). The Talmud enumerates a total of 613 rules, 248 being commands and 365 prohibitions (see Jew. Encyc. iv. 181, s.v. Commandments, The 613). In the post-Talmudic period many works were written on these 613 "mizwot," some even by Maimonides. The legal parts of the Pentateuch include all the relations of human life, although these are discussed with greater detail in the Talmud (see Talmudic Laws). The Torah recognizes no subdivisions of the commandments; for all alike are the ordinances of God, and a distinction may be drawn only according to modern ideas, as when Driver (in Hastings, "Dict. Bible," iii. 66) proposes a triple division, into juridical, ceremonial, and moral "torot."

Penal Law.

Montefiore was correct when, in laying emphasis on the ethical aspect of the Biblical concept of God, he declared that even the law of the Bible was permeated with morality, propounding his view in the following words ("Hibbert Lectures," p. 64): "Most original and characteristic was the moral influence of Jahveh in the domain of law. Jahveh, to the Israelite, was emphatically the God of the right. . . . From the earliest times onward, Jahveh's sanctuary was the depository of law, and the priest was His spokesman." The most prominent characteristic of the Pentateuchal law, as compared with the laws of ancient peoples and of medieval Europe, is mildness, a feature which is still further developed in the Talmud. The Torah is justly regarded as the source of humane law. Although such phrases occur as "that soul shall be cut off from his people" or "so shalt thou put the evil away from the midst of thee," it would be incorrect to take them literally, or to deduce from them certain theories of penal law, as Förster has recently done. On the contrary, these expressions prove that the Mosaiclaw was not a legal code in the strict sense of the term, but an ethical work. Although the Talmudists made it a penal code, instinctively reading that character into it, the penal law of the Torah is something theoretical which was never put into practise. This view is supported by the fact that a commandment is stated sometimes without the threat of any penalty whatever for its violation, and sometimes with the assignment even of death as a punishment for its transgression. In like manner, tradition frequently substitutes such a phrase as "he forfeited his life" for "transgression worthy of death."

Civil Law.

On the other hand, the civil law of the Torah, which is more developed and bears a practical character, probably accords more closely with ancient Jewish legal procedure. It reflects the conditions of an agricultural state, since most of the laws relate to farming and cognate matters. There was no Hebrew word for "store," although "just measure" was mentioned. It must be borne in mind, however, that to satisfy the more advanced conditions of later times, the Talmudists both supplemented the Mosaic law and by means of analogy and similar expedients interpolated into the Torah much which it did not contain originally.

From the earliest times the Synagogue has proclaimed the divine origin of the Pentateuch, and has held that Moses wrote it down from dictation, while the religions based on Judaism have until very recently held the same view. Biblical criticism, however, denies the Mosaic authorship and ascribes only a portion of varying extent to so ancient an origin. A history of criticism in regard to this point is given by Winer ("B. R." ii. 419 et seq.) and by Driver (in Hastings, "Dict. Bible," iii. 66), while Montefiore expresses himself as follows (l.c.):

"The Torah—or teaching—of the priests, half judicial, half pædagogic, was a deep moral influence; and there was no element in the religion which was at once more genuinely Hebrew and more closely identified with the national God. There is good reason to believe that this priestly Torah is the one religious institution which can be correctly attributed to Moses. . . . Though Moses was not the author of the written law, he was unquestionably the founder of that oral teaching, or Torah, which preceded and became the basis of the codes of the Pentateuch."

Meket - Who to Trust - Chassidus

CHASSIDUS BS'D DERECH HaBAAL SHEM TOV Ahavas HaShem, Ahavas Yisroel, Ahavas HaTorah THE WAY OF THE BAAL SHEM TOV Love of G-d, Love of fellow Jews, Love of the Torah by Moshe Shulman

MeKetz I. Who to trust. 1. 'And it was at the end of two years' (Bereishis* 41.1) The Midrash says, "'Praised is the man who has trusts in HaShem*' this is Yosef." My grandfather ZT'L (the Baal Shem Tov) has a teaching on the verse, 'Blessed is the man who trusts in HaShem, and HaShem is what he trusts in'. He said that there are three things with regards to trusting: the person who trusts, the one he has trust in, and the action or method that his trust depends on. This is the meaning: HaShem is the one whom a person has trust in. Through Him he will get all that he needs, so long as he goes in His ways. The person who trusts is the person himself. However as to the action or method, even though he has trust that HaShem will provide for him, he nevertheless feels that there is some action he must do. He feels that the action that he is doing will cause him to have his needs met. This action can be some type of business deal or something of that nature. [He feels it is the action that brings to fruition the trust that he has in HaShem.] However this person has yet to come to the true understanding of faith. The foundation of faith is to believe that there is HaShem and nothing else. That in truth he does not need to do any action that will cause him to gain his needs. This is because it is HaShem who brings about all the situations in life. Even if he would not occupy himself with his business deals, HaShem could provide for him his needs according to His great mercy. This is the meaning of the verse, 'Blessed is the man who has trust in HaShem, and HaShem is what he trusts in.' That is to say that his trust is totally in HaShem. He is the one he trusts in and there is no action that he trusts in to bring about his needs. He doesn't need to do anything for HaShem to provide for him. Everything depends on HaShem. Even if he has something that he does for his livelihood, he does not believe that this is what supplies his needs. He has a perfect faith that it is HaShem who provides for him. It is HaShem who wishes that he be provided for in this manner, and not that there is any real need for him to do this action. He should only trust in HaShem. This is a very high level of service of HaShem. (p.277 sefer Baal Shem Tov teachings of the Baal Shem Tov. This is taken from the sefer Degel Machneh Ephraim.) * * * II. The nature of Tshuva* 2. 'And the ill looking cows ate ... And Pharaoh awoke' (Bereishis 41.4) A little further in the Torah* it says that when Pharaoh retells the story of his dream to Yosef he changes it. He says that you couldn't tell that the ill looking cows had eaten the other healthy ones. This was not mentioned when the dream was first being related by the Torah. It seems to me that all the stories in the Torah are a remez* in order to instruct us in the proper way of serving HaShem. It seems to me that the dream of Pharaoh is a remez for the person who has sinned and continued to act wickedly until his actions have caused all his seven bad midos* to swallow up the seven good midos he had. There are seven ways of serving HaShem. 1. To love Him. 2. To be in fear of Him. 3. to glorify Him. 4. to succeed in the battle with the Yetzer HaRah* for His sake. 5. To praise Him. 6. To be attached to the Holy King. 7. To accept His Rulership over you. The verse says 'And G-d has created these against those' [This indicates that for every good midah there is it's opposite which is bad.] HaShem has created the Yetzer HaRah [as a test] in order to turn a persons attention to the foolish affairs of this world and its emptiness. To lead him on a way that is not good, so that he will love the things of this world, and to fear things other then HaShem. To beautify other things. And the same with all the other midos. The foolish person walks in darkness and follows after his Yetzer and so he causes (G-d forbid) his seven good midos to be swallowed up by the seven bad ones of the side opposing HaShem. Now when the sinner is sinning, every day he continues in his foolishness. However long he does not do Tshuva, he does not even feel that he is doing anything wrong and he weakens the power of holiness that was in him. In fact what happens is the opposite. He thinks of himself as a great Tzaddik* who is upright, and going in the proper way. Therefore it is properly stated in this verse that he saw the cows in his dream, which is a remez to the sinner who when he sins it is like he is sleeping. It does not say anything about recognizing that the good ones having disappeared into the bad ones. This is because the good that is in him is as if it were asleep. And he is spending his life in a dream and so it is not even possible to say that one 'couldn't see that they were eaten up.' Since he is so drunk from his actions he doesn't even know that he doesn't know. [He can't even see that he has lost his good midos.] However after he awakens and starts to do tshuva, he is like one awakening from sleep. He has awakened from the sleep of foolishness and he feels sorry for his actions and he does tshuva to HaShem. And he feels bad over the actions he had done because of the greatness of his sins. And his eyes become opened to the greatness of the damage he has done through his actions. And from heaven they help him to see how he should act after he has awakened from his sleep which had caused his seven bad midos to swallow up the seven midos of holiness. Also the sins that were not revealed to him he recognizes. 'And they swallowed them up but they still appeared ill fed.' This means that he had sinned so much that he didn't even recognize it. [But now he sees that he had really sinned.] This is the remez of the dream and his awakening. The Baal Tshuva* when he returns and speaks to his heart about the great blindness that he had before this. He laments of the sins he had that were so bad that he didn't realize that he had lost his good midos until he awoke. And he sighs and has a broken spirit and returns to HaShem. He accepts that from now on he will no longer sin and he will go in the paths of truth. (p. 74 sefer Avodas Yisroel, teachings of Rebbe Yisroel the Koznitzer Maggid*) * * * III. The true Cause 3. 'And they said one to his brother, surely we have sinned concerning our brother...' (Bereishis 42.21) The Torah is giving us a remez. We should understand that if some disaster comes to a person (G-d forbid) and he does not see any sin that he did which could be the cause of it. He should assume that the reason is that he had an opportunity to instruct or help someone in serving HaShem, or to do some good thing and he was lazy and did not do it. This is what the verse says. 'Surely we have sinned concerning our brother in that we saw his soul's anguish when and he begged our help.' We should have strengthen him in serving HaShem and save him from the anguish of his soul and from the difficult trials he was going through. But 'We did not listen, therefore this trouble has come upon us.' [Because we did not listen to help him to serve HaShem, this disaster has come upon us.] (p. 31 Sefer Divrei Emunah vol 2 teachings of Rebbe Avraham Yitzchok, Admor* m'Toldos Aharon ZT'L) * * * IV. Faith 4. I would like to end this week with a little piece from one of the many letters written by the Toldos Aharon Rebbe ZT'L (whose Yortzheit is during Channukah) to his Chasidim. The main thing is not to give up hope no matter what happens, because it is written, 'I am HaShem and I do not change.' HaShem watches over every single person in every single act. No one can hurt even a small finger in this world if it has not been decreed from above. It can be compared to water where if you look into it your face sees another face. So it is that according to the strength with which one is attached by his faith to Hashem, and in His providence, so will Hashem guide him in his life. By having simple faith in HaShem one is able to bring on himself all kinds of blessings even outside of the normal order of things. This is what Chazal* say, 'even a wicked person who has faith in HaShem His mercy surrounds him.' (#136b sefer Asefos Meksuvim part 1, letters from Rebbe Avraham Yitzchok, Admor m'Toldos Aharon ZT'L) --------------------------------------------------------------------- Glossary: Arizal: Hebrew initials of the words: Adoni Rabbenu Yitzchok Zechorono LeVaracha our master Rabbi Yitzchok. Better known as Yitzchok Luria the great 16th century Kabbalist Baal Tshuva (Baalei Tshuva): Hebrew for someone who is a repentant sinner. Bamidbar: Fourth book of the Torah. Called in English Numbers Chazal: Hebrew initials for: Chochmenu Zichrona Levaracha (Our sages of Blessed memory) Used to refer to Rabbis of the Talmud Chesed: Hebrew word meaning acts of mercy Drash: A method of Biblical interpretation ascribing moral or ethical meaning to verses in the Torah. HaShem: Noun used in place of G-d. Lit. The Name mikvah: Hebrew word referring to a ritual bath used for purification Mishnah: An ancient Jewish work made of specific laws. Moshe Rabbeinu: Hebrew for Moses our teacher. A common Jewish way of referring to Moses. Or HaChaim: Jewish Torah commentary Rashi: The primary commentary on the Tenach. Rebbe: Leader of a Chassidic group or a teacher Rebbe Reb: A title added to a few special Rebbes as a sign of their higher spiritual stature. remez: A method of Biblical interpretation based on finding hints in the Torah for various concepts. Rov: An official rabbi who renders legal decisions. Many of the Rebbes were both a Rebbe of Chasidim, and the Rov of the city in which they lived. Sanhedrin: 1. Tractate in the Talmud 2. Name of the highest level of the Jewish court system. sefer (seforim): A Jewish religious book. Talmud: An ancient work of Jewish law. Tehillim: Hebrew name for Psalms. Torah: a. First 5 books of the Jewish Bible b. Also refers to the whole of Jewish law c. also common term for a chassidic teaching Tshuva: Hebrew word for repentance ************************************************************** Copyright (c) 1997 by Moshe Shulman (mshulman@virtual.co.il) All rights reserved. Issur Hasugas Givilv